Asian Studies

Christopher Columbus is famous for his discovery of the American continent and his voyages to find the sea route to Asia. Long before him, it was the Chinese who were the rulers of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Ocean. This was all because of the Chinese fleet by the name of Treasure Fleet, which through its voyages, stamped Chinese authority in the peninsula. The Chinese fleet was under the command of Admiral Cheng Ho, a Muslim eunuch.

Cheng Ho was a mariner,explorer,diplomatandfleet admiral, among other things. He commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Africa, which became popular as the travels of Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean. These voyages took place from 1405 to 1433 and enabled the Chinese navy to stamp its authority on the blue waters.  

His rise to being an admiral is an accomplishment in itself as he was captured at Yunnan by the Ming army and made a eunuch. He was later presented to the Imperial Court as San Bao, which means Three Jewels. His rise in stature started here, where he swiftly became a trusted adviser of the Yongle Emperor. He had his hand in the deposition of the Jianwen Emperor. He received the title of Zheng by the emperor, for his services. 1

He was later appointed to the title of Defender of Nanjing in 1425, by the Hongxi. His meteoric rise did not stop here as 1428, he was asked by the Xuande Emperor to oversee the construction of a landmark temple, now Da Baoen Temple in Nanjing. His achievements reached a high point in 1430, where he was appointed to lead the seventh voyage of the Treasure Fleet. Sadly, this brought an end to an industrious career, as he died on the returning trip. He died at Hormuz, in 1433.

In its effort to impose imperial control over trade routes, the Ming government sponsored naval expeditions between 1405 and 1433. This also had its roots in the extension of the tributary system.  Zheng He was placed as the admiral of a huge fleet and armed forces, with Wang Jinghing as his second in command. His first expedition had 317 ships with around 28,000 crewmen. Under his command, the fleets visited East Africa, Arabia, India, Malay Archipelago and Thailand (Siam). On his travels, diplomacy was the biggest weapon in Zheng Hes arsenal, with his large army helping him stress his position in full detail.

The voyages enabled the world to see the might of China. Zheng He would rule with an iron fist and would not take any threats lightly. His land wars n Ceylon were waged against pirates of the region. He worked on his agenda to make China a center of the world, as more and more envoys would come from states all over the world to China, to pay their respects. In his voyages Zheng He was also able to relocate a large number of Muslims at Malacca. He like most great admirals is buried at sea, though there is a tomb in his name in China. 2

As a result of Zheng Hes voyages, China was able to gain a lot of ground on its adversaries. Apart from the fact those envoys would come and pay its respects in the Ming courts. He also managed to bring exotic spices and trophies back to China, which were well received. It was the direct result of his land war in Ceylon that the King himself came to apologize to the Ming Emperor. The records of the last two Treasure Voyages were destroyed by the Ming Emperor. It is speculated that the ships made it to Iran on one side and Cape of Good Hope on the other.

It is said that Zheng He went around the world approximately a century before Christopher Columbus. A lot of parallels can be made between these two great navigators of the oceans. The advancement of Chinese in naval technology can be measured from this fact that while Columbuss ship was only 55ft long, Zheng He and his deputies rode in ships as long as 416 ft. Christopher Columbus alongside Vasco da Gama are known as the foremost discoverers o their time, but what Zheng He managed to do is out of their leagues. While these travelers were destitute in their conditions, Zheng He changed his fortunes over the years. He not only made China the hub of all activities, but also had a vision of success for the future. His naval fleet will still be any Admirals dream. Zheng He not only managed to develop relations with a lot of different states but also stamped Chinas authority in the world. From Arabia to Thailand, the Chinese fleets were both respected and envied for its superiority. It has been commented that if it were to be possible that we can combine all the ships under Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama, it will still be possible to put them all on the deck of a single ship under Zheng Hes command. 3 Such was the strength of his naval fleet, truly a source of envy to any admiral.

Mencius and Xun Zi are philosophers who greatly influenced the social and political behavior of their time, and contributed to the present Chinese cultures and attitudes.  This paper will focus on how their similarities and differences affect their view towards human nature.  This will specifically discuss the process on how they came up into two different perspectives about human nature, precisely on individual betterment, and how they influenced social acceptance of education from the beginning till the contemporary time.  Both time of existence will be analyzed in order to weigh and root out their source of basis to the subject of human nature.  This paper aims to point how their environment and state they grew up affect their view, and also how these views affect the entire social and political system in China.  

Mencius is an intelligent philosopher who was one of the follower and primarily interpreted Confucianism, and whom according to legend, traveled for several years trying to convince rulers for reform. On the other hand, Xun Zi, also a Chinese philosopher, was first recognized at the age of fifty.  His reputation of being a Confucius follower was always being questioned. 

Xun Zi believed in the evilness of human nature but somehow understood that it could be overcome by the intelligence provided through learning.  On the other side, Mencius believed in the goodness of human nature and that there exist the tendency for human to become good like how the water naturally tends to flow downward.  Their differences varied upon the way each of them grew up.  Xun Zi was born in the middle of disorders and however witnessed the falling and vicious environment during the near end of the Zhou dynasty.  Faced with more social and political chaos, his belief was partially influenced by his surroundings. (de Bary, 1999)

Influenced by the Confucians, Mencius believed that positive changes were possible if education would be highlighted for emphasis.  Human nature is good because it is not programmed until the very minute detail, that is why when the environment is not favorable, the improvement through education is needed to ease the evilness in the environment that corrupted ones natural nature.  And since for him, human nature was naturally good, the beginning of the moral sentiments followed.  Education for Mencius would awake the hidden abilities of human.  Xunzi also believes in the power of education.  But unlike Mencius, he viewed education as a tool to develop goodness in human nature since human are naturally evil. 

While Xun Zi believed in the importance of learning, he agreed the humans were deficient.  On his part on Encouraging Learning, as interpreted by the Chinese more of pleading or persuading man to learn, he gave different descriptions that would explain how learning could influence ones  capability that would be marked as ones own.  According to Mencius, Through learning, one could adapt a second nature of refinement and moral uprightness, so that the moral requirements become internalized and the noble person becomes complete. (de Bary,1960)

Xun Zi more focused on discussing learning and its processes, rather than Mencius who spent more time discussing on the perceptive understanding on their learners.  Some of the developments talked by Xun Zi were openness to criticisms, balance of character, and guidance of oneself to rituals.  He also understands the significance of good governance through administrative skills and recognizes the importance of the authority in a state.  He also believes in the social stratification through the recognition of a ruler that would maintain the social distinction.  He imposed distinction between a morally virtuous king and an able king, though both aim to protect the people and uphold peace. The morally virtuous king focuses in minor details of the state such as the amount of tax and more intended to benefit the majority of the people.  The refinement or the rectification of names, for Mencius, only able him to tackle more about he moral king because it just present the qualities and characters that kings should have.  For Xun Zi, the reality of universe is not moral, earth and heaven have different and separate rule in the core of the world, and there are preliminary rules about leadership.  The role of the moral kings is simply to practice these rules on its limit and get higher appeal to the people that would able them without the characters they could not obtain. 

    Xun Zi also believed in the necessity for the rulers to learn and master the rules and laws of leadership which he specifically includes in the discussion of heaven.  He defined heaven as one with laws which is called the laws of nature and that man has to accept those rules for them to be good leaders and rulers and that rulers have to focus on collection of taxes (as what the attitude of the morally virtuous king requires) or else be judged of defying the laws of nature (de bary, 1999)

     Xun Zi also discussed about rituals, which for him, reflects rules which retain balance in the social order.  On the other hand, social order was also created by human instead of created by heaven.  For Mencius, our nature is what given by heaven, therefore, everything human creates, is naturally given by heaven. 

    Through the basis of their roots, Xun Zi, born in a more conflict and intense social chaos, viewed human nature as naturally evil.  His witness to the brutality of the unfavorable environment because of the warring states brought to this ideology.  However, he believed that this would be change through a massive cultivation of ones self, through education.  On the other hand, Mencius, who once served as an official and scholar, aimed for reform through education, as he realizes that human nature is naturally good learning as an appropriate weapon to resist the bad result of the unfavorable environment to the will of human nature.  Though they both believed in the power of education, they differ on their purpose. 

    Mencius also believes that the heart is in charge of enabling human to be good.  It is the moral core of the body that is inclined to do what is good, as it is unavoidable.  He realizes that choosing moral good derives a certain level of pleasure to human.  According to him, there are four receivers in the heart to do moral tendencies, which he called, Four Beginnings.  These four natures in the heart are part of the human nature just like the physical parts that grows in the body.  They are voluntary in such way that they grow even not being initiated or worked for. 

    Xun Zi, on his rectification of names, reasoned why naming of things was significant.  According to Xun Zi, it is important so that the ruler could address commands with his people without being misunderstood, and that he would maintain respect from the people.  He agreed that there should be a universality agreed upon, to continue in the right path in performing his role.  Also, to see the same things would cause more disorders because of confusion with their identity.

Both philosophers are undoubtedly reputable of their thoughts.  The very high acceptance of education to reform or to cultivate human, is unquestionably beneficiary in the contemporary time. Though they differ on the way and time of executing the concept of learning because of their different perspective in human nature, they have been the foundation of giving man the space for improvement.

    Mencius, whose belief is bounded by the singularity of  heaven and human world,  positively convinced man that everyone have their hidden goodness, and that goodness is inevitable, naturally growing within everyone. 

Xun Zi who believes in the evilness of human nature, from being pessimistic to optimistic, argued that given the reality, it could still be change.  But on the other side, he favored of a more hierarchical structure of government by rectification of names.  His thoughts created the distance between a ruler and the followers.  This perspective probably has been the root of the large gap between the rich and the poor, as the words define.  But we could not resist the fact that rectification of names brings social order but not a just social order.

    Both philosophers have greatly contributed in the Chinese system.  Some of their ideologies have been the foundation of knowledge of every institution.  They were very influential in terms of cultivating human for individual betterment.  They have set the foundation that would motivate human to change and it doesnt matter how much evil resides in every person because still, everyone could be change.  

    Their differences also created a good spot to for the human to balance every detail For Mencius that human are naturally good and has the tendency to become evil, but can still change through education, while for Xun Zi, man is naturally evil and can still be change through education.    The core is that, whatever character and attitude human possess, either way, they have the chance to change. 

            As what mentioned earlier, their thoughts and differences resulted to individual betterment, and therefore, as well as to the betterment of the society and the state.  Since they have created a path for betterment and if all people would have their view, there is a chance for a better society and system. 

    Education as a tool for the human improvement is an excellent choice of way.  But truly, for a better individual, memorization as part of learning is not really the true essence of learning as stated by Mencius.  For one to become a better person, he should be able to understand each what he is supposed to learn.  After all, memorization is the lowest part of learning.

      Their perspective towards the concept of heaven and human world are also enough for the human to weigh which should they believe.  For Mencius that everything we does were given and decided by heaven, while Xun Zi believes that human world and heaven are of separate place having separate rules and laws.  Therefore the thing people does here, were created by their own will and heaven has nothing to do with it.  With these, the decision relies on the hand of the people whether whom should they believe with, but either way, even if it is form Mencius or Xun Zi, both of them helps in the improvement of every person.

China and Japan are countries that were largely considered to be socialist states in the East Asia region. The onset of the Industrial Revolution in the Western world led to the incursion into these countries by the Western powers. The Industrial Revolution had caused an influx in trade whereby the Western countries needed markets for their goods and services. They also needed raw materials and labor which they could use to fuel further development. Many countries reacted differently to this incursion. For instance, the Chinese leadership did not want the incursion of the western countries into their territories. Japan, on the other hand, did not put up much resistance and as such welcomed this incursion. First and foremost, China was a country that had monarchies. These monarchies were responsible for the leadership of the country. Their main reason for refusal of the incursion had a lot to do with their pride and need to protect properties acquired through fraudulent means. The leadership had ill-acquired wealth and did not want the Western countries to expose this by enlightening Chinese citizens. China also considered its tributaries as sufficient points from which they could draw their much needed resources. Tributaries such as Hong Kong and Taiwan were however governed by China through dictatorial ways. This feeling of being self-sufficient however hampered Chinas chances of progressing faster in the Industrial Revolution. Japan, on the other hand, had noted the importance of Industrial Revolution and had positioned itself to use the incursion positively. The incursion brought them the much needed technology that was pivotal in accelerating development. They embraced western education and thus acquired technical skills in the military fields apart from technical knowledge in engineering and other fields (Lockwood, 1956).

The difference in reactions by the two East Asian countries stems from different reasons. Japans reaction can be attributed to its pragmatic leadership. The leadership in Japan had envisioned a free and independent country. As such, they wanted to learn the most early enough so as to progress at speeds similar to those of the Western countries. They thus took this incursion as an opportunity to learn fast. China, on the other hand, assumed that their superiority in the East Asian region could help them develop faster. This territorial superiority, however, was only real within its tributaries. As a result, China could not acquire new and more efficient technology and knowledge that were very important in the Industrial Revolution. The need by Chinese monarchies to protect their ill gotten wealth also fuelled this resistance.  During the British Opium war, however, European powers managed to enter into China and thus the revolution got substantial impetus. The need by China to maintain a chokehold on their tributaries also fuelled the resistance to a large extent. Tributaries like Hong Kong had for long been oppressed by Chinese authorities who believed that Hong Kong was their protectorate and as such had to be governed from a central point. The incursion by Western imperialists was viewed as a threat as the western powers were likely to liberate these tributaries from Chinese oppression. In conclusion, Japan and China reacted in totally different ways to the Western Imperialism. This can be said to have affected the rate of development in the two countries. Whereas Japan progressed faster in the East Asia region, China and the other countries within the region were left to languish in stagnated growth. While we can attribute the Japanese reaction to a leadership with foresight, the Chinese reaction can largely be attributed to its largely very conservative nature fostered by its Confucianistic beliefs.

Since time immemorial, the minority groups of every nation have always sought ways to defend themselves from the oppression of the state. Virtually all countries in the world have minority and majority groups as far as the countries demographics are concerned. From the general outlook of things, the majority group tends to be favored by the existing government, unlike the minority group. This is also similar to the situation in China, where the minority group, the Uighurs, have been demonstrating since time immemorial as a result of the infringement of their rights. The main reason for the continuous Uyghur protests in China has been the ethnic animosity between the Uyghur and then Han which has greatly been fuelled by the formers oppression by the government in the region.   

The Uighurs A Chinese minority group
The Uighurs ancestors are believed to have arrived in Xinjiang over six thousand years ago. However, the current Uighurs started their existence in the Xinjiang as from 1935. Their origin is traced from North Western Mongolia, where they migrated to Xinjiang. In 1930, the government of China stated that the modern Uighurs would become official dwelling Muslims of Xinjiang. From long time ago, the description of the Uighur people have changed depending on seasons. The term Uighur is described using very many terms (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, pg.4). They are a Turkic speaking group who are known to share so many qualities with the people in the west side of Xingjian, especially in the Soviet Central Asia. They are however different from the Hans in so many ways, even in their physical nature (Roberts, 2009).

Initially, they were described as Turkic, steppe, nomadic, shamanistic and a Manichaean society in Mongolia. The definition was transformed to a sedentary oasis, Buddhist, Manichaean, Nestorian Christian Society. Finally, the description changed and became an elite, primarily Buddhist Turkic society which was centered in the Turpan oasis, which was known as Uyghuristan (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, pg.4). 

However, the Uighurs, who were mainly Buddhists, converted to the Islamic religion, and all the terms that described them in association to the Buddhist religion ceased from being used (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, pg.4). 

The Hans and the Uighurs The deep rooted conflict
The tension between the Uighurs and the Hans traces back to two hundred plus years ago. Xinjiang was initially colonized by the Qing dynasty in the 1750s. As a result, there was a formation of strong resistance movements which fought the Qing for several decades. There was a revolt which was planed by the Uighur, and it resulted to the establishment of several sovereign states by the Uighur people. These resulted to the short term states which were independent in the Xinjiang province (Roberts, 2009).

The wrangles between the Han and the Uighurs were so hostile in1931 as the officials in the Chinese government always set to manipulate the Xinjiang hereditary leadership. As a result, there was turmoil amongst the groups living in Xinjiang. The Uighur group, better known as the local Turkic group (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, p .4), in those days was in constant loggerheads with the Tungans, or the Han Chinese. This period marked the start of several gory battles. The forces affiliated to the Han Chinese from the neighboring provinces, such as Gansu, invaded Xinjiang. Their invasion was planned because the Han Chinese were taking advantage of the battle in the province, so that they could set in. The rebellion of these groups continued up to 1933 and the animosity between the two groups continued to heighten (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, p. 4).  

The fact that the two groups were from the Islamic religion did not stop them from fighting. This is because there was high utilization of the Chinese officials and troops aimed at maintaining their role in the Islamic religion. Additionally, the Han Chinese were described by the Uighurs as allies of the Chinese administration (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, pg.7) who continually oppressed the Uighurs. This is because they repeatedly applied ethnic policies from the Soviet, which had been used in Soviet Central Asia. These policies were discriminatory as they rendered the minority groups such as the Uighurs powerless. As a result, they continued existing in their minority status in the nation (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, p.7). 

Up to date, the violence between the Han Chinese and the Uighurs still exists. During the month of April 1990, there was a high level of violence in Xinjiang. The Uighurs rebelled because of the animosity leveled against them. They had been denied the right of constructing a mosque. Over sixty people were killed in their demonstrations. This was perhaps one of the incidences that captured the attention of the media, apart from the recent 2009 riots in the same region (Rudelson  Rudelson, 1999, pg.8-9).

The recent protests 
There were protests in 2009 in China as a result of the ill treatment of the Uighur people by the Chinese government. The protest was organized by students, who felt that the Chinese government had oppressed the Uighur group for a long time. They were demonstrating as a result of what had happened in a Shaoguan factory in the Southern part of China, where very many Uighurs were beaten and others killed as they tried to advocate for their rights. Even the supporters of the Uighurs were not left behind by the government. The students who protested were also beaten up as they tried to express their sympathy to the Uighurs through the protests. Even though theirs was a peaceful demonstration, the Chinese government excessively used force towards them (Kadeer, 2009).

Other sources state that there are several Uighur workers who had been given jobs at the shoe factory so as to deal with the labor shortage in the company. On that night, several Han workers killed some Uighur men whom they claimed had been found harassing a female worker in the company. These reports were not valid enough, and the Uighur people started protesting and demanding for quick investigations to the matter. The Uighur women were also not left behind in the demonstrations. They were active to assert their existence, and to reveal their role as leaders and protestors (Jaffer, 2009).  These demonstrators revealed how leadership roles are being taken by the Muslim women so as to defend their group. This was as a result of the communal violence in the past years against the Uighurs in the Xinjiang region (Foreman, 2009).

The government of China blanketed Urumqi, which is the capital city of the Xingjian region, located at the Western side of China. Due to the ethnic clashes between the Hans and the Uighurs, very many residents began to flee. This situation was so serious, and posed a very major challenge for the Communist leaders of the country. The president, Hu Jintao even canceled the plans he had to attend an Eight Summit Group in Italy so as to address the situation (Roberts, 2009). 

Chris Hoggs, a reporter in BBC described the protests as one of the worst reported in the country since Tiananmen Square in 1989 (BBC 2010). The BBC news stated that the protests by the students were a result of the brutal fight between the Han Chinese and the Uighurs in the Southern part of China from the previous month. The protests started with few demonstrators, who were less than a hundred, and the group later increased and several groups of people joined, who amounted to more than one thousand. The protestors were armed with batons, knives and bricks. Their peaceful demonstration turned chaotic, as they smashed several cars on the roads and even broke stores. Additionally, they fought the security forces in the town (BBC 2010).

The Chinese government A quick response
There was a brutal reaction from the Chinese government as a result of all the demonstrations held by the Uighur, or those that were held by others in a bid to support the Uighurs. Over four hundred Uighurs died in Urumqi as a result of shooting and beating from the Chinese police. Scores of people were also injured. As a result of the protests, the Chinese government imposed a curfew, and all the telephone connections in the town were destroyed. Tension remained high in the city, as there were house to house searches which were conducted by the Chinese governments so as to arrest all the male Uighurs. As a result of the demonstrations in Urumqi, tension spread to other cities like Kashgar, Aksu, Khotan, Karamay and Yarkand. According to the media, there were two officials who were assigned each Uighur home, especially in the Kashgar city (Kadeer, 2009).

Since time immemorial, the Chinese government is well known for constantly encouraging the Han Chinese. This is an action which encourages a national streak in the Han Chinese so that it can replace the ideology of the yester years the communist ideology (Kadeer, 2009). It is after the breaking up of the USSR that the urge of resisting the Chinese rules by the Uighurs increased. This is because Uighur was the only main Turkic nationality which never had its own state. Additionally, there were Islamic movements which had close cultural, linguistic and historical ties in Central Asia. These movements have been a strong source of support for the Uighurs, something that the Chinese government has constantly opposed (Kristensen, 2008).

Problems that led to the protests
   Since the attacks of the World Trade Centre on September eleven in the US, the Uighurs have always suffered discrimination, as they have been linked to the terrorist groups from the Muslim world. As a result, they are associated with the Bin laden clique (Gluckman, 2009). The Chinese government have always claimed that the Uighurs have some overseas links with the Muslim nations involved in terrorist attacks. Experts in the government have even claimed that there is enough evidence to support this claim. The Beijing administration has even associated one of the Uighurs links, the Uighur East Tujue network (Gluckman, 2009) as a very strong link to the Taliban, and it has been a major source of help to several terrorist cells in their bomb attacks and assassinations. As a result, the Chinese government has always oppressed the Uighurs in very many ways (Gluckman, 2009).

It is surprising that the problems that existed in the earlier years still exists as far as the treatment of the Uighurs is concerned. A study conducted in 2006 reveals that the issue of nationalism has been overlooked by the Chinese government as it has acted to its best to ensure that the Uighur group is economically disadvantaged. The Chinese government has been instrumental in encouraging the Han Chinese to migrate to Xinjiang. In fact, in the beginning of 2004, there were over six hundred thousand Han Chinese immigrants in Xinjiang. Their main purpose of migrating in the Xinjiang region was to secure jobs. Most of these people secured jobs, at the expense of the Uighurs. All the financial benefits in Xinjiang were only shifted from the Uighurs in China. The Uighurs have often been undermined and underrated because all the good jobs in Xinjiang are only assigned to the Han Chinese (Kilgour, 2006). 

The Chinese have also been discriminated on the basis of language. Ordinarily, the Mandarin language is the major language of the Han Chinese. Therefore, as they migrate into Xinjiang or any other regions that the Uighurs inhabit, they tend to segregate the Uighurs because they cannot speak their language. Most of the business operations are done using the Mandarin language. As a result, the Uighurs are faced with a language barrier problem. This is especially so with the older generation, because the younger generation is trying to be at per by learning the Mandarin language. However, learning the Mandarin language has not benefited the people a lot because up to date, the number of Uighurs who secure jobs in places which are inhabited by the Han Chinese and the Uighurs is still small. Most of the Hans are educated, and are not speakers of the Uighur language. Therefore, speaking the Mandarin language only serves as discriminatory to the Uighurs (Kilgour, 2006).    
In most of the Chinese regions, there are several job opportunities in cotton plantations and oil reserves, which are mostly assigned to the Hans, while the Uighurs are denied the opportunity to work in theses places. For example, research reveals that in 1995, the oil exploration regions of the Taklamakan desert only had two hundred and fifty three workers from the minority groups like the Uighurs. Then total numbers of workers were four thousand (Kilgour, 2006).

The Chinese bureaucracy also discriminates the Uighurs. For any of them to open up a business premise, one must have a business permit. Additionally, there are restrictions for them as far as movement to other provinces is concerned. This is unlike the restrictions imposed on the other tribes, like the Hans. It is also very difficult for the Uighurs to start up their own premises, as the administration does not support their interests. In fact, the business sections of the Hans people are described as high class, while those of the Uighurs are stated as very impoverished and ghetto-like. This is clearly shown by the demographic genocide  or the ethnic swamping, that is present, where the northern part of the Chinese region is made up of the Hans, Mongolians and the Kazakhs, while the Uighurs live in the southern part of the country (Kilgour, 2006).

Education
The children of the Uighurs have also been discriminated by the Chinese government. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), states that all the minority nationalities in the Republic of China must be recognized. Additionally, the national autonomy of all people must be recognized, as well as the customs, religion, writing and language systems. The CCP also states that it aims at helping the minority nationalities in boosting their economy (Rahman, 2005).

However the Chinese administration has not worked to ensure that it has met its aims. This is because since 1949, the education of the minority group children, the Uighurs included was at stake. There were no enough classroom buildings for the children of these minority groups, and only a very few untrained teachers. There was also limited resource availability, especially that of textbooks and other classroom equipment. After the passage of all the decades, these issues are still unresolved. The Uighur children are still discriminated in the educational sector. Even though the level of literacy has steadily increased, the minority groups like the Uighurs are still facing discrimination. This is because the other schools which are entirely for the other tribes like the Hans use only their languages during curriculum instruction (Starr, 2004).

The Uighurs are almost half of the population of Xinjiang. However, the Han Chinese group is the one that controls China. As a result, the Uighurs are degraded as they are economically, politically and culturally marginalized. Earlier on, the Uighurs were not strict followers of the Islam culture and religion. However, as they years passed on, they have slowly adapted to the ways of the Islam. Since the Islam culture in most parts of China has always been associated with terrorists links, the Chinese government has strengthened the official control over all the Islamic clergy. Religious institutions have been required to register with the government, and several mosques have been closed down. All the leaders that are accused of being subversive and unpatriotic have been arrested (Kristensen, 2008).

Even though Beijing has adopted some languages from the Xinjiang region, it has strived to ensure that the Mandarin language is the one mostly used in China. For example, all the universities in Xinjiang are required to teach all its courses in Mandarin, except for culture and language. There were also similar measures which were taken in middle and elementary schools. The Uighurs have been separated from the states of the Asians. This has undermined their ability in linguistics. There are very many investments which have been made in China since the 1990s. The aims of these investments have been to open up the West, so as to benefit all the communities living there. However, the only population that has benefited from these is the Han populace, and not the Uighurs (Kristensen, 2008).

The tendency of people migrating to the Xinjiang region is also very common. This is because of the large natural reserves, mainly mineral resources and cotton. As a result, the Chinese government has continued to encourage the influx of the Hans in the regions, who have taken up all the important posts (Kristensen, 2008).

    The Uighurs also claim to be politically marginalized. For any person from the Uighur minority group to qualify as a political leader, they must have been trained in institutions which belong to the Han Chinese. Their success depends entirely on the support from the Han Chinese leaders. Additionally, there are no preferential policies which have been introduced for the minorities. Even though the situation has been said to improve, the Uighurs are still underrepresented in China by the Communist party (Kristensen, 2008).

    There are very many steps which have been previously undertaken by the Uighurs so as to alleviate the level of discrimination, and to make the Uighurs feel accepted in China. However, this has brought about mixed reactions, as some have taken it negatively. Some of these acts have been like the Open up the West campaign and the Strike hard campaign (Kristensen, 2008). These campaigns have led to the rise of the level of protests from the Uighurs. The Uighurs are also known to have a very strong tradition of resisting the rule of the Chinese. It is not until the eighteenth century that China got the genuine control of the Xinjiang region. Up to date, they have still resisted being led by the Chinese authorities (Kristensen, 2008).

    The above discussion sheds some light on the treatment of the Uighurs in their country. The Chinese government has failed, as it has not met all the aims it has outlined as the CCP. All races are equal, and therefore there is no reason for oppressing the minority groups. All people in the region should be given the freedom of choice and expression, and should be made to feel equal to the other tribes in the region. Otherwise, there will always be conflicts, and these continuous fights can even lead to serious civil wars. Special commissions should be formed to address the issue lest it poses a danger to the Chinese government.

A specific community issue of the Vietnamese American community Generation gap in the Vietnamese Asian community which led to American born Vietnamese youths to feel alienated from their families

    Introduction The struggle of Vietnamese youth has to be recognized as the clash of two cultures in which the two generations have conflicting ideologies and set of values which has emerged from the gap leading to adolescent Vietnamese youth feeling alienated from their families and parents. This has been recognized as the generation gap in the Vietnamese Asian Community. The presence of Vietnamese community on the American soil traces back to over twenty-five years, the real influx began after 1975 when many Vietnamese refugees entered America. Zhou has accurately noted that second generation Vietnamese community has formed one of the largest population of refugees children in the history of American historical statistics. They are also one of the most American born and raised communities influenced from infancy by the American culture which results in impressive influence in their childhood and adolescent life. (Zhou,1998). This consequently leads to the evolution of the generation as an ethnic group which has to face the conflicts of cultural differences and the value system. The real challenge is to grow up as the parents desire, with Vietnamese roots along with their assimilation with the American cultural exposure. There has been increasing rebellion witnessed in the adolescent Vietnamese community which has also traces of juvenile delinquency associated with their social involvement leading to low performance in school and gang involvement. These issues have culminated in increasing alienation of the youth from their families and their Vietnamese roots. The pressures of the Vietnamese value system and the American cultures are significantly overwhelming for them to navigate steadily in the establishment of their own identity and foundation on the American soil.

History of Vietnamese American Community The Vietnamese community has been accepted on the American soil as refugees since last 25 years, and has accepted America as their home. The process began in 1975 as a result of the fall of the South Vietnamese government. They took shelter in America as political refugees who were tormented by the political turmoil which led to their evacuation from their native land. The crisis situation did not provide ample time to prepare for relocation they were just plunged into this new situation. The insecurity and fear of instability in Vietnam led to their relocation as the only method of survival. The support from US government helped them to leave by ship and air in safely organized groups (Thai, 1999). The American government took all measures to support them as well as carefully disperse them across the regions of US, to avoid concentration in one area and encourage easy assimilation within the new exposure of the American culture. The aim was to disperse the Vietnamese Americans in most of the large metropolitan areas which in the history of US have not experienced major ethnic immigration. This new trends of migration was addressed from the point of reunion in relation to the family, to address the issues related to communal factor and also to tackle the emerging employment related issues. (Zhou, 1998, p.48). According to the US census 2000, the Vietnamese community in United States is the 4th largest Asian community, which has taken to many low paying and menial jobs in some of the worst communities in United States. The strong development of Vietnamese middle class has promised some emerging success, which indicates lesser trouble within the community.

Traditional Vietnamese family values In the context of traditional value system, the criticism targeted towards parents by second generation Vietnamese Americans has been paramount. The youth seemed perplexed by conflicting exposure in which they lacked their own strong foundation in traditional values and ethnic cultural expectations. The strict and authoritative role of the parents made situation worse. There was ongoing emotional turmoil and stress which emerged as the core problem which created a gulf of misunderstanding and increased the generation gap.

    The expectation of most Vietnamese parents is to see their children adhere to the Vietnamese cultural values without even taking the effort to instill these values in them from their early years. In the book The Vietnamese Americans the writer Hien Duc Do very strongly mentions Children do not instinctually learn these cultural customs and practices simply because they are born into the family (Do, 1999, pg. 127). Do strongly state the case that it requires active involvement on the part of the parent to teach and expose their children to the cultural values of their roots. Without firm foundation of the traditional values right from childhood, in the youth the children can be pushed over the edge by the pressures from the family and conflicts of the new environment and cultural exposure.

    These emerging youth feel the need for systematic exposure to the cultural values and history, in order to appreciate their cultural bonds, which parents do not realize and implement.

The Second Generation Zhou has rightfully mentioned that the Vietnamese-American second generation has been recognized as the single most largest group of refugee children who are experiencing growing up in the American culture and environment which is drastically different from their parents generation. (Zhou,1998, p.1). The emerging middle class has led to growing number of youth attending high school and colleges which exposes them intimately to the American culture and these results in increasing rate of conflicts between traditional Vietnamese cultural values of their parents. The influence of the American society is overpowering and has led to alienation from their parents and barrier to acceptance of their ancestral roots.

    It is interesting to observe that more than 96 of the children who arrived within the territory of United States were under the age of twelve years as recorded by the US census of 2000.

    The indications of rebellion of the youth in the low class neighborhood resulted in conflicts which escalated in the growing up years of the children. Similar issues are affecting the present generation Vietnamese youth who are rebellious and are school dropouts, they have been targeted as low achievers, involved in criminal activities and disturbed and distressed. These negative factors are counter acted by growing number of rising middle class Vietnamese who are reformed and successful leading to better livelihood and lifestyle.

    There has also been incidence of youth coming from affluent families indulging themselves to alcoholism, drugs and partying beyond limits. They go to affluent schools and are spoilt and devoid of ethics. The neighborhood plays an important role in shaping the outlook and performance of the youth. This forces parents to work hard to get money to get houses in good neighborhood so that the future and peers who influence them are more motivated and competitive, rather than fun loving. The class of neighborhood plays an important role in determining the outcome of the rebellious behavior, delinquency and performance in education. Even though neighborhood plays a significant role, the most immediate impact which emerges is the family conflict which results from the clash of the values. It was agreed upon unanimously that parental understanding acceptance and communication played the key role in determining the positive or negative outcome of the conflict which resulted in alienation. These were primary factors leading to rebellious behavior in the youth.

Role of Vietnamese Parents The role of the Vietnamese parents in nurturing the traditional family values has been which could be the foundation pillars of the growth in their children played an important role in determining the level of tension and conflict. The lifestyle involved living together of three to five generation sunder the same roof, which provides the support for the family, but which also leads to complexities in the adolescents. The typical Vietnamese family conforms to the Confucian ideals and the structure of the family circles around authority. The role of the father is most important in all matters related to decision-making. The mother plays the role of the home management and housekeeper. The value of education in traditional family was pivotal to success and the emphasis on education is competitive.

    In the context of traditional value system, the criticism targeted towards parents by second generation Vietnamese Americans has been paramount. The youth seemed perplexed by conflicting exposure in which they lacked their own strong foundation in traditional values and ethnic cultural expectations. The strict and authoritative role of the parents made situation worse. There was ongoing emotional turmoil and stress which emerged as the core problem which created a gulf of misunderstanding and increased the generation gap.

    The families which have moved since 1985 face the issues which are related to refugee parents which position them in unskilled labor class where they are struggling with new language and cultural issues, along with the economic constraint. The struggle for survival is crippling and their hopes are crushed and the stresses of everyday life is overbearing.

    The parents focus on education as the key to raising their quality of life by investing in the future of their children. The pressure is building and leads to increasing levels of conflict. The concern for the collective future of the family is one of the main concerns which engage the parents and this leads to further alienation of the youth from the parents. The over-imposition and authoritative nature of the parents leads to many second generation youth of Vietnamese American origin take education seriously and do well in school and obey their parents but many rebel as they get mixed messages which are of conflicting nature from school and cultural environment around them. The expectation of most Vietnamese parents is to see their children adhere to the Vietnamese cultural values without even taking the effort to instill these values in them from their early years. In the book The Vietnamese Americans the writer Hien Duc Do very strongly mentions Children do not instinctually learn these cultural customs and practices simply because they are born into the family (Do, 1999, pg. 127). Do strongly state the case that it requires active involvement on the part of the parent to teach and expose their children to the cultural values of their roots. Without firm foundation of the traditional values right from childhood, in the youth the children can be pushed over the edge by the pressures from the family and conflicts of the new environment and cultural exposure.

    The expectations of the parents is taken very negatively by youth as they think that even though the parents are leading their new life in American environment , they are still in their minds in Vietnam. They want to live by the same rules and values which are not practical in the new environment. They feel that parents lack understanding and support. They feel they are not taken into confidence and told things in the forthright manner. They are expected to be obedient and docile to the extent of losing their identity. They feel that parents ignore the fact that these children are born and brought up in an American environment, and that they need to adapt to this new culture and environment. They are not offered any explanation and guidance which can help them cope better under these conflicting conditions. There is heavy burden of expectation without understanding. These emerging youth feel the need for systematic exposure to the cultural values and history, in order to appreciate their cultural bonds, which parents do not realize and implement. The strictness and the rigidity of the typical Vietnamese parent lead to overprotection which leads towards alienation.

    The role of hierarchy based on traditional values which demanded obedience from the children based on the Confucian Family values and system was resented strongly by the children. Youth felt that they were treated as subordinates and that parents lacked empathy and sensitivity towards them. The parents were considered to be harsh and unmindful of their needs. The language also serves as a great barrier in the communication and interaction between parents and children. The parents are also not vocal and expressive about their feelings and sentiments for their children. This gives the youth an adverse opinion with regard their parents position which is regarded as old fashioned and overly strict. The language barrier imposed on the youth who were more fluent members of the family in terms of language fluency with extra roles and responsibilities when it involved interacting with local people, reading contracts and car polices and other documents which were part of livelihood. The adolescent felt overwhelmed with the extra responsibility which was put on their shoulders by the family. There was lack of encouragement from the parents and strong criticism which created an imbalance in the relationship. The pressure of the tradition and the constant criticism along with comparison with others created a very hostile situation which was suffocating for youth. The nagging and the lack of understanding make the situation worse. The Vietnamese youth craved for affection and warmth from parents, and instead they received cold comparison which made them truant. The inability to meet the expectation and the pressure for constant improvement is very discouraging and causes a great gap in understanding and interaction.

    There has been observed generational gap which has been a hindrance in the acceptance of the traditional values and has led to more trend towards adoption of American cultural values leading to greater degree of cultural assimilation in Vietnamese American Youth.

    The youth is more attracted by the American standard which seems to open more opportunities for success in comparison to the restraints and restriction of their traditional value system. This lures the Vietnamese American Youth more towards acceptance of American cultural values. They feel that the constraints of the traditional Vietnamese values which are imposed on them leads to slow down their pace of assimilation within the society within which they are growing. The youth tends to resents against such impositions and rebels against their parents who are so un- American. The pressure to overachieve and obey without questioning adds fuel to the fire. This conflict instills the feeling that parents neither care, love or understand them. The lack of mutual understanding leads to the generation gap which tends to create a gulf which cannot be bridged. The complaint and the worry aspect of parenting are not understood in a positive light.

Solutions for generation gap The core issue which surrounds the issue of the generation gap in the context of the second generation Vietnamese Americans is the conflict which emerges from the traditional Vietnamese family system versus the new environment in which they are immersed, the American cultural experience. The support nucleus of the family can provide the platform for more open communication and security, by warmth, interaction and communication. The existence of the five generations living within the same walls can serve as an asset, since the volatile reactive interaction between the youth and the parents can be pacified by the older members of the family like grandparents.

    The entanglement of the system of authority in the new light of the new country and new system of American culture in which the youth does need to assimilate should be taken seriously within the framework of the Confucian ideology which is universally very firm in foundation. An early exposure to stories and narratives with true stories will provide with the opportunity to integrate the two cultures with more open mindedness and les resentment. The command for obedience by the authoritative figure of father has to be transformed to embrace children with more respect and trust allowing them more freedom which is essential for their balanced growth and this will result in less alienation.

    The exposure to right education, commitment to traditional values emerging from early training and education will lead to conditions which will help bridge the gap between Youth in Vietnamese American Community. The increasing generation gap can be addressed by providing a platform for engagement and involvement from childhood with regard to the traditional Vietnamese culture, the Confucian ideology, the role of family unity, the ethnic culture.

    The parents should also observe the new situation with an open mind and embrace some of the constructive choices which adolescents make, and be not overly critical about their ideas and opinions. The parents in their position as the Vietnamese refugees should try harder to learn the new language and integrate with the local culture. This new look will help them be more understanding towards the needs of their children and will temper their overly strict disposition and provide emotional support to the youth who re still struggling to choose their identity. The assimilation into the new cultural environment will give them confidence to love and understand their children better. The hopes should not be used to pressure the children for over pressure in all situations for excellence, it should be understood that they are also coping with complex situations and will need communication and thinking along with extra care and warmth from the side of the parents.

    Parents should take time to integrate the customs and rituals in modified and practical manner to expose their children to these values from the very beginning. Children need to teach these values, with consistency and love. This will instill in them a natural draw towards these core valued when the critical time for decision-making comes. Nurturance plays a very important role in intricate decision-making.

The Impact of the American environment and Social Circles The Impact of the American environment and Social Circles It should be noted that the dramatically contrasting environment of the American schools was one of the early reasons which impacted the historical issues related to Vietnamese refugees. The observation made by Long has been very accurate when she expresses that Many children who were high achievers in Vietnam have failed here, and failure in school drives too many youngsters into gangs. Embarrassed, humiliated, lacking self esteem and self-confidence, students on the edge of the families begin cutting classes.(Long, 1997, p.95). There is tendency for such youth to join gangs and feel withdrawn as a result of linguistic struggle. There is need for attention and good tutorial service to help them out of this cycle of frustration and self- destruction. There is also need to take into consideration that they are place within the school structure in grades which are compatible with their academic skills. The social adjustment factor is also very significant in the sense that kids are tormented by sudden change of environment where they are not fully accepted. Parents and counselors need to address such issues with sensitivity and forcefulness to help the child cope with these new emerging circumstances. Sometimes the trauma of the school experience leads to quitting classes and school as the negative experience is very overwhelming for the child. They feel that exposure to school is a form of punishment.

    The experience of second generation Vietnamese Americans who were born in America and have been connected with schools from childhood has been more positive in terms of assimilation, but reveal some other problems related to school. Even though the American background has provided the bridge which makes the transition and understanding more easily, they still experience wide ranging conflict with their Vietnamese parenting values and traditional Vietnamese value system. They are more vulnerable to exposure from their American peers and friends at school. Their standards and friendships led to conflict with traditional Vietnamese value system. They seemed to lean more on their friends for support, and this created space and distance from the family bond. They felt that the support of friends, gave them the encouragement and motivation which was required to do well in school. They also felt that their friends cared more for them than their parents and families. In contrast, the parents played no role in their choice or selection of friends and neither did they approve of their friends attitudes and behavior. The lack of parental involvement with the friends made them divert from the family ethics and values to more acceptances of the American cultural values though the strings of the family ties does play a role in checking their overindulgence in American ways . This merges from the fact that they feel some degree of obligation to conform to the values of their parents.

    The social involvement helped in bridging the gap and extracurricular activities helped many youth to stay positively active and involved. The activities like Girl Scout, Boy Scout, sports gave them a platform to get involved with the community at more equal par without ethnic or language barriers coming in the way. These activities sometimes provide focus and discipline which plays to boost their performance in school and thus help them cope with the situation better. The encouragement from the coaches who motivated them to perform better in academics as well as sports worked to push their levels of motivation. The success encouraged them to work harder and aim for success and recognition. This also acted as diversion from the loosening ties of the family. This resulted in inculcation of patterns and attitudes which was not readily acceptable at home and led to conflict with the parents and their value system. The patterns were distinctly alien and non-conformist.

The Role of Personal Freedom The issue of personal freedom has been paramount in the understanding of the process of alienation in Vietnamese American. The major part of the family tension with regard to cultural value system emerged from youth desiring for more personal freedom more in harmony with American cultural practices. The strictness and authorities attitude of the parents which did not even consider and grant reasonable freedom and independence to growing and merging youth led to feeling of resentment which bred into open alienation. A Vietnamese leader and educator, Le Thanh Viet who spends ample time with Vietnamese families lays emphasis on the fact that parents would educate themselves to recognize, accept and understand the two cultural values with their differences and learn to live in harmony with the synergy of cultural values which can enrich lives and relationships. (Long, 1997, p.80.)

    The role of parents in assimilation to the American culture plays an important role in keeping the family chord united and strong. The failure of parents to understand and interact leads to the development of the cycle of rebellion and alienation which can be controlled. In the book Family Tightrope author Kibria writes about the Vietnamese American youth, which expressed a desire for a more democratic form of expression which would involve open hugging and kissing, and adoption of communication pattern which engaged in open expression of affection. The absence of such expressions in Vietnamese culture made them feel awkward. They observed that the cultural expression was very contained in Vietnamese families in comparison to the open expression in American Families.(Kibria, 1993,p.153).

    The lack of communication has been identified as one of the most significant factors which lead to generation gap between parents and the youth of Vietnamese American community. Parents can be immense comfort and support in the rough periods of adjustment and can help handle the youth with care and love and understanding. Communication is the key to resolving conflicts and disagreements. Parents need to sit with the child, hold hands and allow them to express when they are ready. This sensitivity is choked in the family structure of the Vietnamese American Community and the present day youth who have seen the outside world and culture resent this narrow mindedness and vigil.

    It is interesting to note that parents are so tightly bound by their Vietnamese traditional values that even though they cherish their children, the tightrope of tradition and authority limits their free discussion, open communication and free expression within the family. The imposition that the child must accept and obey what a parent commands is an essential fact which leads to the wider gap between generations and ultimately leads to alienation. The expectations of the family from the child are very overwhelming. There is conflict in terms of expectations the parents expectation is that children should be more in harmony with the tradition Vietnamese value system and Confucian ideologies.  The Vietnamese American youth on the contrary want their parents to be more open to assimilation within the American culture, be more fluent in overcoming their language barrier and be more open like American parents. It is of significant importance that children understand the Vietnamese culture and grasp its ideologies, but the nurturance should start early and without imposition but with more involvement and care and warmth. There has been trend that younger parents are taking steps to bridge the gap by trying to understand what the children are going through. It is important to interact with child and the youth, and be round them when they need you. It is important to know hat is going on their school, with their friends, be involved with their friends and be part of their activities. This gives them a platform of bonding on which the other lessons with regard to culture and ideology can be sustained. There have been instances of wider generation gap and intense angers directed towards alienation from the core families in Vietnamese American Community. Though things are in the process of transformation, yet it has not been fast enough to suppress the seeping angers towards their parental generation in the youth. There has been increasing rebellion and alienation which has led to severe complaints against parents. Interestingly, if you scratch the surface there is hope for second generation of Vietnamese American who are going through this cultural turmoil. There is still love and sense of obligation which holds the family chord, and holds the string of delicate relationship alive with hope for reconcilement and harmonious integration.

    The examples of other immigrants are also an important looking glass through which they have hoped to restructure their value system for more harmonious family ties. There is possibility of blending and integrating various value systems which can bring together the old cultural value in tune with the new cultural exposure, in which both can emerge to strengthen the relationships within the families in the new emerging and struggling Vietnamese American Community.

The Bani Utbah tribe members are the ones who are attributed with the founding of Kuwait in the early 18th century. By then, Kuwait was known as Guraine. The tribe members of Bani Utbah developed the port and urban center of Guraine which they later named Kuwait. In the eighteenth century, Al-Khalifa Al-Jalahma and Al-Sabah arrived in the state of Kuwait. The three of them were Anizah tribe descendants, who had progressively migrated from Jed in the early 18th century to the Persian Gulf shores. It is believed that Sabahs first migrated to the south in order to flee from a severe drought in Najad, but the southern conditions were bleaker. As a result, they decided to head to Kuwait which is in the north since there were ample water resources hence settling in the country (Abu-Hakima, pp 22).

Kuwait history
The region that later became Kuwait was initially under the control of the chief regional Gulf powers, principally the dynasties that were based in both Persia and Mesopotamia. The Safavids, which was one of the Persian dynasties, was the most influential dynasty in the region. It had moved into this region in the sixteenth century and founded a great commercial empire in the Arabian Peninsulas eastern seaboard. In later years of the same century, the Arabian Peninsulas northeastern region became part of the Ottoman Empire of Turkey. However, things took a different turn when the family of Al-Sabah, which even now rules Kuwait, arrived into the region in the eighteenth century and took control of the entire local administration. This family then steered Kuwait into a nation of semi-autonomous position. But the eminent fear that the former rulers from Turkey would attempt to reassert control in the region the Al-Sabah family led the other Kuwait people in making a treaty with the British, permitting Britain to control the foreign affairs of the country and in exchange, Kuwait would receive military protection from the British. This particular threat ceased following the Ottoman Empires collapse at the close of WWI. However, the country remained a protectorate of Britain until 1961, when it finally attained full independence (Rush, pp 35).

Kuwait is contemporary compared to the rest of the world due to the high literacy rates prevailing in the country. The literacy rate of approximately 93.3  of Kuwaitis is among the highest in not only the Arab world, but also in the entire world. It has mainly resulted from extensive support the Kuwaitis have received from the government. The entire public education system is free. The Kuwaiti government also sponsors qualified students from the country to study in foreign nations for courses that are not offered by the Kuwaiti universities (Casey, pp 41).

Modernity of Kuwait is also different from the rest of the world in that unlike in other nations where majority are employed by the private sector, more than 90 of Kuwaitis are employed by the  government. Kuwait is also contemporary compared to the rest of the world in that it puts about 10 of the countrys oil revenues in a special reserve to be used by future Kuwaiti generations. These reserves are supposed to be utilized once the nations oil reserves will be completely depleted and thus these reserves will assist the country during the transition period (Casey, pp 47). 

The history of Kuwait can be traced all the way to the sixteenth century through to the eighteenth century when the nation was established. The Al-Sabah family has played a significant role ever since it took control of the country from the Ottoman Empire of the Turkish people. The British also form a significant history of the Kuwaitis since the country was a protectorate of Britain until 1961, when it finally received independence.

    All societies and cultures will experience growth and modernization. Unless the society is completely cut off from the rest of the world, then global influences of modernization will occur. In todays environment, such changes will be quick and significant. In prior decades, growth was slower and a bit more shocking in terms of its impact.

    The emergence of changes in the modernization of Korea during the early part of the 20th century delivered some upheaval in the populace. The impact of such changes was found in many different components of the culture. In the realm of literature, we can see how such an impact was felt. This is evidenced in the short stories When the Buckwheat Blooms and The Shaman Painting. A close examination of these stories can reveal the impact of such changes prevalent with modernization as well as an undertone of resistance to such change.

Issues of growth, maturation, and the development into a new world have their conflicts. In When the Buckwheat Blooms, we discover the following passage about the character of Ho In the two decades that Ho had been peddling dry goods at the rural markets, he had rarely skipped Pongpyong in his rounds. He sometimes went to other towns. More regular than the moon, he tramped from one town to the next. He took pride in telling others that Chongju was his hometown, but he never seemed to go there. To Ho, home sweet home was the beautiful landscape along the roads that led him from one market town to the next.(89) In many ways, this is symbolic of the notion of modern growth. Specifically, the road represents the journey of such growth and the destinations are irrelevant. Or, per Ho, that is the perception that is arrived at and it can be considered a somewhat troubling perception. When we are more concerned with the journey as opposed to the destination, then we really are not concerned with the journey. Instead, we become lost in the miasma of the mind. At this point, those things that are external fail to have the appropriate impact one would expect.

    In Hos situation, it would seem his desire to enjoy the journey leads to him not really traveling on any journey. In other words, he is locked into the process of traveling staying outside the realm of the modern nature of the towns. In short, the towns may grow and progress in time. However, the changes in the roads are basically untouched beyond a superficial level. As such, he is able to hold onto the past by being more concerned with the roads than he is on the departure and destination points. This can lead to his becoming an unchanged man in an unchanging society. Does this benefit him in anyway While there may be issues of comfort in holding onto the old, such clinging to the past ultimately can lead to problem. Again, not changing in a world that does change can lead to scores of conflicts and problems.

    Similarly, such concepts find their way into the other word as well. Consider this lyricism in The Shaman Painting In one isolated corner of this village lived a sorceress people called Mohwa....Mohwas house was quite unlike the others in this hamlet. The house hid deep in the weeds that crowded a large yard encircled by a long rock wall which was crumbling in places like the ancient fortress wall that snaked along
the mountain ridge nearby. (37)

    The concept of a sorceress is never one we think of in the present tense. Rather, it is connected to concepts associated with folklore and the past. The notion that the sorceress hides in a home that is off the proverbial beaten path also maintains a symbolism of holding onto the past. By remaining deep in the woods, the sorceress is able to avoid moving into modern society. This allows the sorceress to maintain an existence in a world where such mythical beings are no longer thought to exist. Hence, she is able to survive in a changing society.

    It would be possible to look at Mohwa as a symbol of the traditional past trying to maintain relevance and existence in the changing world. This could be further symbolic of the cultural upheaval that may have been occurring in Korea at the time of the storys writing.

    In other ways, this can tie into the concept that people look towards nature as something outside the realm of the human world. While society may change and move forward into more modern and enlightened times, the concept of the sorceress remains something that holds onto the ancient past. In some ways, it is not an awkward concept to assume that Ho shares similarities with Mohwa as he, too, seemingly wishes to exist in a world that is transitory. By enjoying his time on the roads between two points he shares themes with Mohwa who lives off of the road. In essence, neither needs to join with the modern world although there will eventually come a time where they both will need to
accept the changes that surround them.

    The issue with modernity is that it has a tendency to creep up on societies. In some instances, modernization can occur with a speed and quickness that leaves others somewhat stunned and surprised. Often, this is the result of influences from foreign cultures creeping into a domestic bliss and altering it forever. In some instances, it is merely the result of new progress that changes a society. For example, an egalitarian society that is modified as a result of the winds of change may resist the changes. However, such resistance must give way to the obvious back that life and society must progress or forever fall behind.

    We can see this in the modernization of colonial Korea reflected in the two short stories. While the populace is not completely adverse to the advent of a new, modern society there is somewhat of a minor rejection of the changes. Resistance to change is understandable in any society. Namely, it is because while consistencies of the past will carry from generation to generation, the rapid changes can also cause certain aspects and components of the culture to disappear.

    While some of the younger generations might accept such a change because of the perceived freedoms that come with cultural and societal change and upheaval, a realization that the society the youth grew up with is being altered from their perceived expectations. This can sometimes create a significant alteration in their belief systems or their cultural comfort levels. It is such alterations that are common in both of these stories. In many ways, both tales deal with a common acceptance and rejection of the march towards a new modernization in Korean culture.

    The title of When the Buckwheat Blooms even hints at the change of an era and the dawn of something new. Buckwheat blooms when it starts to mature. At this point, the buckwheat has reached a point of its prime growth. Unfortunately, there is a negative symbolism that is at work here as well. Namely, once the buckwheat blooms it is picked and consumed. In short, it dies.

    In some ways, you could appropriate this decidedly negative image and apply it to the colonial world of Korea. As the colonial era dies and the modern one is born, the proverbial end of an era occurs. This can possess a certain bittersweet component that has its positives and its negatives. Namely, it is a positive thing that a society evolves but the components of it that are lost in the evolution can be missed. Again, this would be a bittersweet component to the notion of developing into a modern society. However, such changes are unavoidable.

    This connects to the notions of the antiquarian theme where time becomes synonymous with problems related to progression. A random order of cultural themes emerges from the linear progression of time, but the negatives it leaves in its wake will have an influence on the populace.

    With Ho, we learn of the loneliness of the unchanged man. He had gone into debt, and saving money was now out of the question. And thus began a hand-to-mouth existence as he journeyed from one market to the next.In the course of all his squandering, Ho had never managed to conquer a woman. The cold, heartless creatures-they have no use for me, he would think dejectedly. His only constant friend was the donkey.  (90) One could put forth the notion that the decision to stay outside the advent and development of a modern society has punished Ho. He is now condemned to a lonely existence because he has tied himself to an existence that is seeks to avoid the changing of time. In some ways, you could say that Mohwa suffers from the same fate being tied to the folklore concept of a sorceress. Either way, time progresses forward and both remain in their stunted past.

    To say that the society of Korea needs to avoid falling into such trappings would be an understatement. If we are to assume the passage of time coincides with a loss of understanding, we could say that we run the risk of losing a connection to the past and cultural identity that exists in the prior generations. Such a problem can exist within the overall framework of Koreas emergence from its colonial heritage into a more modern existence. Yes, there will always be some resistance on the parts of the populace to move forward with the progress of time.
However, it would not be an overstatement to say the bulk of the population would welcome such forward progress since it brings with it the benefits of the modernization of society. Progress may be rejected in some circles but the vast majority of the populace will embrace it thanks to the benefits that they can procure from such change. Really, if the vast majority of the population refused to accept change, change and modernization simply would not be able to effectively occur. There needs to be a willing embrace of it to be effective.

This is not to say that there are not desires to hold onto components of the past. The entire concept of Shaman paintings can reflect a desire to hold onto cultural artifacts of prior eras. With such Shaman paintings there is a connection to the natural world, rural areas, and conceptualizations that exist prior to modernization. In the aforementioned short stories, there is a bit of wallowing in the past which can prove problematic. However, honoring and remembering the past is not so difficult of a concept to embody in a positive manner. Again, the key is to honor the past but not hold onto it to a degree where progress becomes inhibited.

Such themes are present both in the short stories as well as in the actual history of Korea. As we are well aware, Korean society has modernized greatly thanks to its own internal developments and influences from the outside world. Such concepts and changes are reflected both in its historical texts as well as the aforementioned works of fiction that will present a clear indication of how the nations society was culturally impacted by such changes.

Within the literature of the era, we are able to see the cultural impact of such changes through the eyes of those that experience them. Granted, there is a great deal of alliteration and symbolism present in such an approach. However, the themes of the work expand beyond the narrative structure and provide an insight into how the changes manifest in the eyes of the populace. In many ways, the two short stories examined herein provide a brilliant insight into how such a march to modernization was viewed.

This paper is a critical analysis of the research paper  The Ancestral Landscape Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China  written by David N. Keightley. The paper traces back, keeping the historical facts in mind, the origin of the modern day Chinese culture to the prominent ancient Chinese culture, particularly the Shang culture. The Shang s land was more special because of its  ancient worship , a highly developed religious cult that had a significant role in the land s political administration as well. 

What Makes the Shangs Land Special
The Shang dynasty that ruled the ancient Chinese kingdom, through the Bronze ages to the Neolithic ages, was the more powerful of the two prominent dynasties of that era, the Shang dynasty and the Western Chou dynasty. While discussing about the early civilization of China, David N. Keightley affirms this fact in his research paper entitled  The Ancestral Landscape Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (c. 1200-1045 B.C.) .

The Shang kings and their people lived in a variety of intensely rural communities located across the North China plain. Undoubtedly, most of the political and religious policies that were to be the predecessors of the modern China s policies originated from these communities. However, the strength of the Shang culture was its  ancestor worship , a series of religious rituals that were used by the living generation to worship their dead ancestors.

The oracle-borne inscriptions obtained from the sites of excavations reveal some interesting facts about the orderly religious rituals associated with the  ancestor worship . These inscriptions were also helpful in shedding some light on the social and cultural development that the Shang land observed under the able guidance of the Shang kings. In the Shang s land, the Shang king was considered as the supreme authority and there certainly existed a defined social hierarchy based on certain social parameters such as royal lineage, proximity to the king, etc. The Shang king was placed at the apex of the hierarchy and below him  his officers , mostly from the royal family itself.  Labor gangs  were placed at the bottom of the hierarchy and were responsible for the farm labor. The Shang king s officers were responsible for accompanying the king in his hunting parties as well as in supervising  labor gangs .

Ancestor Worship
Though the  ancestor worship  was supposed to be a hard-core religious ceremony, in reality, this religious custom, being able to induce a harmonious feeling among the Shang people, played a critical role in the systematic administration of the Shang land. Prayers and sacrifices were regularly offered to ancestors and several aspects of divinations were attached to the dead Shang kings. In fact, these ancestral kings were also believed to be taking part in the rituals not only as receivers of the sacrifices but also as participants. Thus, these rituals were viewed as a holy ceremony where a communion between the dead ancestral kings and the living Shang king took place and their royal and divine powers were transferred to their living descendants. Perhaps, this is the reason why people believed that the Shang king s dreams were also inspired by his dead ancestors.

After discussing the rituals associated with the  ancient worship , Keightley thoroughly analyses the political and religious implications of this custom on the Shang culture. Since a  harmonious mood  prevailed throughout the  ancestor worship , the politically shrewd Shang kings might have used this custom to unite their people by instilling in them  a sense of belonging  and thus putting group harmony ahead of personal independence. In further analysis, he points out that  ancestor worship  might have been their best political strategy to establish the political and religious authority within the community and across all other communities. This might also have been used as a strategy to ensure that the kingship transferred from father to son within the royal community.

Going back to the details of the burial ceremonies and worshipping rituals associated with the dead, it is obvious that the Shang land worshipped its ancestors as gods with precise, systematic religious rituals. Tombs for the dead were made in big underground storehouses where numerous grave goods and hundreds of sacrificial victims were also buried along with the dead bodies that were accompanied by elaborate mortuary practices. Such tombs served as monuments to the affection that linked the living generation to the dead ancestors. This practice assumes great significance here as the Shang land viewed death as a continuity of life and its elaborate mortuary practices validated the importance of procreation. In Keightley s analysis, this particular system has a great demographical impact as it indirectly encourages population growth within the community. Similarly, the practice of burying material wealth promoted the production of material wealth. This makes the Shang land special among all lands as it was very particular in emphasizing life over death and accepting death as an inevitable part of a harmonious order, thus putting greater emphasis on life over death. Yet, a closer look at these rituals, particularly the human sacrifices or  sacrificial victims  that accompanied the dead, reveals another gruesome side of the Shang culture.

The  accompanying-in-death , as the  sacrificial victims  often called, clearly indicates that a highly defined social hierarchy existed in the Shang land. That is, a high social status and superior powers were attributed to the Shang kings while the human sacrificial victims were supposed to be very inferior. It is quite obvious that the lives of the inferior people were not considered worthy in the Shang land and cruelty to them amounted to the level of burying them alive along with the dead. But Keightley s research completely overlooks this historically important fact. Another weakness of his research paper is, though Keightley narrates about the rituals associated with the ancestor worship at a great length, he does not elaborate the clearly defined social structures that existed in the Shang land.

Nature Worship and Ancient Worship
The Shang land deserves a special position among the ancient cultures for its intensive worship to the nature powers like the mountain power and the river power along with the ancient worship rituals. According to Keightley, when the Shang people offered prayers to Yang mountain power, yellow river power and other nature powers, they might have been trying to incorporate these powers into the powers of their dead ancestors so that they could have absolute power over all communities in their domain. But a closer analysis of the facts related to the nature worship reveals an underlying reason for their nature worship, i.e., their fear of natural disasters. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that perhaps, the Shang land might have been trying to please the natural powers in order avoid nature s fury.

Why the Shang Culture is Unique
Values and cultures of the Shang land differed from those of the Mesopotamia and the ancient Greece. Most importantly, the Shang culture was dominated by its optimistic attitude towards death and the acceptance of death as an inevitable part of a harmonious order while its surrounding cultures were quite pessimistic. This is quite evident from the Greek and Mesopotamian literature that glorified death and human tragedy.

This paper is a sincere attempt to explore all possible reasons behind the success of the Shang s land,  among all ancient Chinese dynasties, by analyzing the historical facts discussed by Keightley in his research paper,  The Ancestral Landscape Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (c. 1200-1045 B.C.) . This paper attributes the success of the Shang s land to a particular tradition of the Shang s land called  ancient worship .

    The Art of War is one of the classical works about military strategies and tactics. It was written by Sun Tzu in the 6th century B.C. and considered as a fundamental text about warfare. At the time of its publication, the book was mainly used to develop strategies in war.

    The book states that in order to achieve successful result, five fundamental factors (moral law, heaven, earth, commander, and management) are to be considered. Failure to evaluate these factors will lead to defeat. Numbers does not define the victorious in a battle, unity is much more important in order to be successful. It is also essential to realize the economy of war because understanding the economy greatly helps limit the cost of battles. Sources are one of the key elements in order to be triumphant in a battle. Securing the existing position is also of great importance it will provide opportunity to prepare for an attack and it will also give the enemy the ability to defend. According to Sun Tzu, the same principle applies when controlling larger number of men and smaller number of units (128i).

    In fighting, direct combat is always used when entering a battle but indirect methods is one of the most effective ways in ensuring victory. Being creative and accurate execution of strategy will result in building up the momentum. The quality of the decision will determine whether the attack will be premature or overwhelming.

    Determining the weak point of the enemy is also of vital importance. Revealing the vulnerable area of the enemy ensure successful attack and at the same time, recognizing own weak point will enhance the capability to defend. So in battle, the approach is to avoid the strong portion and attack the vulnerable area of the enemy.

    In maneuvering, Sun Tzu stresses that balance and harmony is of great importance. When marching an army fully equipped, the chance of achieving an advantage is narrowed because the army will only be delayed. On the other hand, dispatching an army abruptly, sacrificing the loads and baggage will lead to insufficient provision. In directing an army, do not attack enemy whose anger is intense and always be cautious about bait offered by the enemy. When the enemy is totally surrounded, do not press too hard and always keep an outlet especially when the enemy is desperate.

    The most significant part of Sun Tzus work is the use of spies. Even in recent times, spy is one of the most effective tools to gain an advantage over an enemy. According to Sun Tzu Knowledge about the opponents disposition cannot be obtain inductively by experience, it can only be achieved from other men. Sun Tzu described these spies into five classifications (1) local spies (2) inward spies (3) converted spies (4) doomed spies (5) surviving spies. Spies are the most important element in battle because the armies movement and success greatly depends on the information that a spy could provide.

    Although the books primary use is for warfare, it is also applied in business tactics in recent time. Sun Tzu emphasizes that positioning is the most vital part in military tactics where it is affected by objective conditions of the environment and subjective opinions of the competitive body in that environment. He also point out that strategy is not merely following instructions in a well established plan but rather it is a technique on how to cope up to changing condition in a quick, proper and suitable response.

Barefoot Gen is a manga or a cartoon created by Keiji Nakazawa. The graphic novel is a ten part series loosely based on Nakawazas own experience during the bombing of Hiroshima in 1945. The first volume entitled Barefoot Gen A Cartoon Story of Hiroshima, introduces the Nakaoka family. The father, Daikichi Nakaoka, is a craftsman who outspokenly declares his opposition to the war between Japan and the United States. He despairs over the catastrophic effects that the war is creating. He can barely provide food for his family and suffers as his young sons Gen and Shinji constantly complain of their hunger and his pregnant wife Kimie suffers from malnutrition. His son Akira is forced to live separately from them as he gets sent to the countryside to be safe from the anticipated bombings. His open opposition towards the war creates hostility among his neighbors and his family is labeled as traitors. But Daikichi Nakaoka stands by his opinion that the war is wrong and even goes to the extent of defying the Neighborhood Chairmans orders during a spear drill by walking out and declaring that Japan will never win the war. His children, however, are affected by their neighbors taunting. Gen, Shinji and their big sister Eiko are bullied by the Chairmans son Ryukichi while they were out selling clogs. Not all the neighbors harbor ill feelings towards the Nakaoka family though. Their Korean neighbor Mr. Pak extends a helping hand when he heard that Kimie was sick of malnutrition by providing them food and giving them money for medicine. However, the succeeding events did nothing to lessen Daikichis bitter feelings towards the war. He disowns his oldest son Koji when Koji signs up for the war in order to prove to their neighbors that they were not traitors. His son Akira who was sent to an evacuation site in the countryside showed up at his doorstep one day after running away from the evacuation site. Because of the hard life he experienced in the countryside, Akira refused to return when his parents urged him to go back to the evacuation site for his own safety. Eiko, Gen and Shinji get in trouble in school as their classmates and teachers jeered at them for being traitors. Daikichi was sent to prison when he attacks a teacher who abused one of his children in school. He was soon let out of prison after a few weeks as more people are starting to express their dissatisfaction towards the government.

In the midst of all this chaos, Gen Nakaoka maintains his cheerful spirit as a young boy. He complains of constant hunger but cheers up in the thought of one day eating rice again when the war is over. Despite having to face the difficulties of air raids as a daily routine, Gen still maintains his playful spirit. He is not indifferent to his familys hardships, though, and tries his best to cheer up his father when they are forced to eat locusts because of lack of food. He protects his sister and younger brother from the neighborhood bullies when they make fun of them and call them traitors. Like his father, he is also getting sick of the war but views everything happening around him as a fact of life and hopes that the war will soon be over.

    The war is far from over though. The United States, China and Great Britain issued the Postdam Declaration demanding unconditional surrender from Japan. But Japans war leaders are determined to fight to the last man. The United States then devices a plan to drop an atomic bomb on Japan. They form a special bombing squadron called the 509th Composite Group in secret and B-29 bombers begin practice runs and join actual air raids on Japanese cities in preparation for the atomic bombing.
In the early morning of August 6, 1945, Gen goes to school never anticipating that the most horrible tragedy will befall upon his beloved hometown in just a few minutes. The United States dropped the nuclear bomb, Little Boy, over Hiroshima killing thousands in an instant. Momentarily knocked off by the blast, Gen awakes to screaming people on the streets. He rushes towards home and is horrified by the sight of zombie-like humans littering the streets. He searches for his family in the rubble that was his home and soon finds his mother trying to free his father, little brother Shinji and sister Eiko who were trapped under their burning house. Gen and his mothers efforts were to no avail and they were forced to watch as the rest of their family burned to death. In the face of such a horrifying misfortune, Gen had his pregnant mother to think about. He rushes her to safety and since he could not find anybody to help him, he had to help his mother deliver the baby. This is where the first volume of the harrowing story of Barefoot Gen ends.

Although depicted in a graphic novel or a cartoon, Barefoot Gen still vividly illustrates and narrates an important part of world history that both adults and children can take an interest to. The bombing of Hiroshima City, Japan during World War II depicts the many wrong things that war creates. Thousands of civilians died, the whole city fell to ruins and in the aftermath of the bombing a lot of people still suffered from injuries resulting from exposure to radiation. Keiji Nakazawas Barefoot Gen implicitly gives a vivid description of the suffering of civilians during the war. Some may view the cartoon very childlike but when you read on and find images of the bombing and the zombie-like creatures drawn in the pages of the book, one cannot help but be affected by the horror that the illustrations create. Being a survivor of the Hiroshima bombing, Nakazawa tries to create what it was like for him to live in a tragic time such as this. He neither appears to be anti-American nor was he trying to draw more sympathy towards the Japanese people during the war. As a reader turns page after page of Barefoot Gen, he will soon realize that Nakazawa is in fact anti-war and therefore only wants people to know that war is wrong and it should never take place.

Through the eyes of Gen Nakaoka, Keiji Nakazawa succeeds in illustrating realistic events that occur before, during and after the bombing of Hiroshima. Before the bombing, people are already going hungry because of food shortage as they are made to believe that soldiers need more food to be able to defend their country. Students in the universities are forced to work in artillery camps to produce more weapons to be used in the war. Young men are being recruited into the army and are being brainwashed that dying in the battlefield is the most honorable act that they can do for their family and for Japan. During the bombing of Hiroshima, dying people litter the streets. Readers of Barefoot Gen will be shocked to see illustrations of a walking human being with his eyeballs hanging out of its sockets and people with melting skins walking on the streets. The mushroom cloud that resulted from the nuclear bomb explosion and gruesome images of death and destruction are all vividly illustrated in the cartoon. After the bombing, Nakazawa draws pictures of wailing people distraught over the loss of loved ones and people screaming in pain over the injuries they took.

As it is a cartoon, Nakazawa does not have the luxury to explain his story in long sentences but through his illustrations, he successfully recounts significant events that led to the bombing of Hiroshima in a historically accurate manner. Nevertheless, young and adult readers will be compelled to feel compassion towards the victims of war.

Through Barefoot Gen, Keiji Nakazawa makes it clear that he wants to help make sure that what happened to Hiroshima is never repeated. While the war between the United States and Japan can be a touchy topic for most, Nakazawa tells his story without bias. He does not put blame on Americans nor the Japanese government. He manages to give an unbiased description of how the Americans secretly devised and unleashed a weapon of mass destruction and the Japanese governments stubborn refusal to give up the war despite the peoples suffering. Both sides did something wrong but what he highlighted on are the grim casualties of war and the fact that war can make people selfishly turn on each other. His goal to make the world realize that war is wrong may have been achieved but his desire to not have what happened to Hiroshima repeated may be an ambitious goal. As every chapter in history is written, a lot of wars still took place long after the Hiroshima bombing and the casualties of war are equally if not more brutal than what happened to Hiroshima. The death toll in the war in Afghanistan and Iraq is a grim testament to the continuing horrors that the war is creating. It is saddening to realize that some countries and its leaders still think that war is inevitable but perhaps there is still hope. If more people are touched by the works of brilliant men like Keiji Nakazawa and actually spread the antiwar sentiments that these men are trying to convey then perhaps world peace can be achieved.