Asian Studies

The Qing Dynasty (also known as the Manchu Dynasty) ruled China from 1644 to 1912.  It was the last dynasty before China was declared a republic.  This dynasty was not made up of the Han, the major ethnic grouping China, but by the Manchus of northern China (today includes the region of Manchuria).  From northern China, they were able to defeat the Ming Dynasty and establish their own rule in China.

During this period, being a different group than the majority Han, the Qing officials tend to be more biased with their own group than those of the Han.  They created distinctions based on clothing or emblem, to be able for the people to differentiate a Han from a Manchu.  In the government there was a system of which both a Han and Manchu were appointed in the central government, he former doing the significant work and the latter ensuring that the said Han official is loyal to the Qing government.  This can be seen as a strategy for the Manchu to show that the people are represented through the Han officials and at the same time keep in check the Han officials in their governance to prevent them from having too much power.  Being represented only a given segment of people (the Manchus) in the country, the majority Han were not able to connect with the government, even if some ethnic Han are working in the government.  The Manchus, treating the Han as inferior to them, further justified their rule to them, seeing themselves as more capable of governing the empire.  The Han, in turn, distrusts the Manchus for being foreign.  This became a factor to the numerous rebellions and insurrections erupted during their rule.

Relationship between the central government and the localities can be seen as loose, in which the control of the government is not that extensive to the other regions.  This can be attributed to the distance of the center from the localities and also to the geography of the country, in which that time some regions were difficult to reach.  With this the representatives of the government that oversees the regions can be said to be more autonomous from it.  This can cause the said representative to be the ruler of the said region andor become more sympathetic to the locals, especially if the said representative came from that region.  He can be more flexible in governing the region being isolated from the center.  Whatever the policy of the representative, the locals were more detached from the center in terms of governance, having only an intermediary between the center and the people.

The impact of foreign influence to the country during their rule also affected the relationship of the state and of the people.  The rulers, being forced to accept the entry of Western influence but also products, was seen by the people as not strong enough to counter the entry of these influences.  The people was able to acquire firsthand the effects of these influences (for example the entry of opium which led to many Chinese being addicted to it).  This experience led to the further distaste of the people to the foreigners.  This also led to the numerous rebellions experienced by the Manchus due to the inability in the eyes of the Chinese, to expel Western influence.  Foreign influence opened the eyes of the Chinese on the decayed condition of their relationship with the government.

During the Communist victory in 1949, the former structure was able to be re-created to fit to the interests of the Chinese people.  Ethnically wise, the Communist government was able to represent almost all of the major groups in the government.  In governing non-Han regions, though the central government still has a decision on their affairs, regional officials are somehow represented by their own local leaders.  Another thing is the addition of bureaucratic layers between the localities and the government, in which the distance between the people and the government is greater.  The creation of formal state structures also enable the people to go to proper channels which in turn led to the clogging of these channels from the people to the regional government and then to the central government.  This led to the delay if not unanswered requests which then in turn led to the dissatisfaction of the people.

In comparing the two (the Qing and the communists), it can be said that both experienced the occasion of having to acquire the support of the people in which they have used representatives not only to be easier to get their support, but also for them to shield themselves if the said representative became unpopular to the people.  It will be easier for them to avoid the blame and at the same time be able to change the said representative with someone who is more likable by the people.  One difference between the two is the establishment by the Communists of state apparatus (aside from the office of their representative) to be able to have a better access of the people to the government.  Though there are times were this structure is clogged due to red tape and corruption, this made the people in the region having an easier communication with the government regardless of distance and geography.

Being the country being big and geographically difficult to govern the people are more inclined to support local leaders than the central government.  Especially in the village level, with the leaders not only visible but also accessible, people are more able to abide them.  Throughout its history, the local leaders played a major role in the development of a region.  The evidence of having numerous revolts and rebellions in the country during the rule of the previous dynasties and in the early 20th century showed that the local leaders were able to sway the people to support them, plus the factor of harsh policies being implemented by the central government only strengthened regional support.  Even with the Communists government, the locals are more concerned with their regional leaders than the officials in Beijing.  This shows that there has no significant change in the relationship between the center (the government) and the localities in the grassroots level.

The promotion of individualism by the Chinese government to the people can be seen as somehow successful.  The introduction of Communism to the country enabled the government to teach the people that individualism is important in their development as human beings.  Being able to justify that a person will have to help himself to be able to pursue its development, one needs to be distinguished from the other.  Aside from this, modernity through technological advancement also contributed in the leaning of people to be more individualistic.  The continuous growth of ideas led to this stage of modernity, in which one should be identified from the other.  This will demonstrate the notion that someone was able to do something and not the other person, which will lead to the person becoming recognized for having this ability.   The penetration of Western culture also is a factor in the growth of this aspect.  The aspect of individuality came from the West, in which as part of the interactions with the Chinese (whether direct interaction or through other mediums like radio, television, or print) foreigners were able to show it, being themselves different from the Chinese.  Unconsciously, this enabled the foreigners to teach this, making them standing out of the other Chinese by not only having these foreign products but also having acquired foreign traits and mannerisms.  
However, having the great push of individualism to the people, many Chinese still are inclined to the kinship-based institutions, especially those who in the regions whose foreign influence had not penetrated extensively.
They still live with their extended family members in the same community and still practice the traits that were acquired through their forefathers.  It is also in these areas where the rural side of the country is more evident.  Being preferred to their old ways, the people in these regions still practice those Communist ideals which were complementary to their way of life.

Human nature dictates that being poor, one should establish good relations to everyone in order for you to survive.  Having nothing, one should maintain a harmonious relationship especially with your neighbors because they will be the ones who can help you in your everyday struggle in life.  This notion can also be applied in China, especially during the 19th and early 20th centuries.  The country, being technologically inferior against the Western countries, should have welcomed and adopted the concepts and ideas the West has introduced to the country, not only to be able to upgrade the country but also not to intimidate them to the extent of being xenophobic.  As weve learned, China, priding itself to be the center of the world and treating other countries as barbaric, was not able to adjust to the new thinking of adaptation, and in turn protected itself extensively against any foreign influence to the point of expelling and later killing all foreigners.  This led to wars with those countries and succeeding defeats of China against them (First and Second Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion).  Its defeat led to the eventual destruction and later overthrow of the Manchus in 1911.

In the Chen village, the factor of having good relations with everyone is still a big factor in the aspect of surviving.  Being under Communist rule, in which some policies required communal contributions as dictated by the central government.  If for example, you were not able to establish a good relationship, this will run to conflict with that you supposed to do, in which can lead to either being excluded from the benefits of the communal contributions or being executed outright for not cooperating.

Relationship between the central government and the localities can be said as more important in which the government in Beijing has given more focus on the local regions to support and implement their policies.  Throughout the Mao era (1949-1976), the policies being implemented were focused on the development of the regions.  For example, in the Great Leap Forward, more emphasis was given to the localities in its implementation.  If seen in a different angle, it can only be observed that the policies made during that time was only one-sided, in which only emphasis was given on the results, and not on the welfare of the people.  If the Great Leap Forward will be the example, the said policy produced mixed results in which agriculture was neglected for a time which led to millions of deaths due to starvation.